The Effect of Different Proportions of Blue Light on Some Developmental and Physiological Characteristics of Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.)

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, East Azerbaijan, Iran

10.22126/atic.2026.12959.1244

Abstract

The spectral quality of light is critical for modulating plant morphology and physiology in the absence of sunlight. This study investigated the influence of varying red (R) to blue (B) light ratios on the growth, morphology, and physiological performance, such as photosynthetic efficiency and chlorophyll fluorescence, of nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.), a species with dual ornamental and edible value. Plants were grown for four months under a 16-h photoperiod and a uniform photosynthetic photon flux density (118 ± 2 μmol m-2 s-1). Treatments included monochromatic red (R) and blue (B) light, three red-blue combinations (R3B1: 75%R/25%B; R1B1: 50%R/50%B; R1B3: 25%R/75%B), and a cool white (W) LED control. Measured parameters included morphological traits, biomass accumulation, growth analysis indices, chlorophyll fluorescence, and light use efficiency (LUE). The results showed that monochromatic R light significantly promoted stem and root elongation and photosynthetic efficiency. Under the conditions of this study, the balanced R1B1 (1:1) treatment consistently yielded optimal results, producing the highest node number, total plant biomass (fresh and dry weight), and superior absolute and relative growth rates. The R1B3 treatment produced the largest leaf area, matching R1B1 in leaf fresh weight, while the red-dominant R3B1 treatment underperformed across most metrics. Photosynthetic performance analysis revealed no significant differences in the maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm) or non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) among treatments. However, the effective quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII) and photochemical quenching (qP) were highest under B and R1B1 light. Light use efficiency (LUE) peaked under R1B1 and white light, whereas R3B1 exhibited significantly reduced LUE. Overall, the results demonstrate that while red light selectively drives elongation, a balanced 1:1 red-to-blue spectrum delivers the most effective combination for integrated growth and physiological performance for optimizing biomass, growth, and photosynthetic performance in nasturtium cultivation, highlighting the importance of spectral optimization in horticultural lighting systems.

Graphical Abstract

The Effect of Different Proportions of Blue Light on Some Developmental and Physiological Characteristics of Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.)

Highlights

  • This study demonstrates that LED spectral composition significantly influences both vegetative growth and physiological performance in Tropaeolum majus.
  • Blue-enriched spectra (R1B3 and B) enhanced leaf expansion and photosystem II efficiency (ΦPSII), while simultaneously suppressing stem elongation.
  • The stability of Fv/Fm and NPQ across treatments indicates a robust capacity for photoprotection and acclimation to diverse light spectra in nasturtium.
  • Future application of dynamic lighting protocols, tuned to distinct developmental stages, could further optimize crop productivity in vertical farming systems.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Ahmadi L., Matloobi M., Motallebi-Azar A. 2024. Light source spectrum influences long-term flowering cycles and visual appearance in African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha Wendl.). Lighting Research & Technology 56(8): 817-834. https://doi.org/10.1177/14771535231183884
Aliniaeifard S., Seifi Kalhor M. 2017. Effects of blue light on photosynthesis of Tradescantia virginiana plants grown in different VPDs. Journal of Plant Research (Iranian Journal of Biology) 30(2): 420-428. (In Farsi). https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.23832592.1396.30.2.16.7
Alrifai O., Hao X., Marcone M.F., Tsao R. 2019. Current review of the modulatory effects of LED lights on photosynthesis of secondary metabolites and future perspectives of microgreen vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 67(22): 6075-6090. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b00819
Avendaño-Abarca V.H., Alvarado-Camarillo D., Valdez-Aguilar L.A., Sánchez-Ortíz E.A., González-Fuentes J.A., Cartmill A.D. 2022. Response of strawberry to the substitution of blue light by green light in an indoor vertical farming system. Agronomy 13(1): 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13010099
Azizi S., Lastochkina O.V., Seyed Hajizadeh H., Aliniaeifard S. 2024. Proper quality of LED light to produce high-quality ornamental plants in controlled environment agricultural systems: a review. Greenhouse Plant Production Journal 1(2): 35-50. https://doi.org/10.61186/gppj.1.2.35
Benke K., Tomkins B. 2017. Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy 13(1): 13-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054
Bi X., Xu H., Yang C., Zhang H., Li W., Su W., Zheng M., Lei B. 2024. Investigating the influence of varied ratios of red and far-red light on lettuce (Lactuca sativa): effects on growth, photosynthetic characteristics and chlorophyll fluorescence. Frontiers in Plant Science 15: 1430241. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1430241
Bian Z., Jiang N., Grundy S., Lu C. 2017. Uncovering LED light effects on plant growth: New angles and perspectives-LED light for improving plant growth, nutrition and energy-use efficiency. International Symposium on New Technologies for Environment Control, Energy-Saving and Crop Production in Greenhouse and Plant 1227 (pp. 491-498). https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1227.62
Bortolini D.G., Barros L., Maciel G.M., Brugnari T., Modkovski T.A., Fachi M.M., Pontarolo R., Pinela J., Ferreira I.C., Haminiuk C.W. 2022. Bioactive profile of edible nasturtium and rose flowers during simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Food Chemistry 381: 132267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132267
Carney M.J., Venetucci P., Gesick E. 2015. LED lighting in controlled environment agriculture. Minnesota Department of Commerce. Outsourced Innovation LLC. https://mn.gov/commerce-stat/pdfs/card-report-greenhouse-led.pdf
Cocetta G., Casciani D., Bulgari R., Musante F., Kołton A., Rossi M., Ferrante A. 2017. Light use efficiency for vegetables production in protected and indoor environments. The European Physical Journal Plus 132(1): 43. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/i2017-11298-x
Cope K.R., Snowden M.C., Bugbee B. 2014. Photobiological interactions of blue light and photosynthetic photon flux: effects of monochromatic and broad‐spectrum light sources. Photochemistry and Photobiology 90(3): 574-584. https://doi.org/10.1111/php.12233
Davis P.A., Burns C. 2016. Photobiology in protected horticulture. Food and Energy Security 5(4): 223-238. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.97
Gabryszewska E., Rudnicki R. 1995. The influence of light quality on the shoot proliferation and rooting of Gerbera jamesonii in vitro. Acta Agrobotanica 48(2): 105-111. https://doi.org/10.5586/aa.1995.021
Goins G.D., Yorio N.C., Sanwo M.M., Brown C.S. 1997. Photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield of wheat plants grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with and without supplemental blue lighting. Journal of Experimental Botany 48(7): 1407-1413. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/48.7.1407
He J., Qin L., Liu Y., Choong T.W. 2015. Photosynthetic capacities and productivity of indoor hydroponically grown Brassica alboglabra Bailey under different light sources. American Journal of Plant Sciences 6(4): 554-563. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2015.64060
Hirai T., Amaki W., Watanabe H. 2005. Action of blue or red monochromatic light on stem internodal growth depends on plant species. International Symposium on Artificial Lighting in Horticulture 711: 345-350. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2006.711.47
Hoenecke M.E., Bula R.J., Tibbitts T.W. 1992. Importance of ‘blue’ photon levels for lettuce seedlings grown under red-light-emitting diodes. HortScience 27(5): 427-430. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.27.5.427
Hunt R., Causton D.R., Shipley B., Askew A.P. 2002. A modern tool for classical plant growth analysis. Annals of Botany 90(4): 485-488. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcf214
Islam M.A., Kuwar G., Clarke J.L., Blystad D.R., Gislerød H.R., Olsen J.E., Torre S. 2012. Artificial light from light emitting diodes (LEDs) with a high portion of blue light results in shorter poinsettias compared to high pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. Scientia Horticulturae 147: 136-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2012.08.034
Izzo L.G., Arena C., De Micco V., Capozzi F., Aronne G. 2019. Light quality shapes morpho-functional traits and pigment content of green and red leaf cultivars of Atriplex hortensis. Scientia Horticulturae 246: 942-950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2018.11.076
Johkan M., Shoji K., Goto F., Hashida S.N., Yoshihara T. 2010. Blue light-emitting diode light irradiation of seedlings improves seedling quality and growth after transplanting in red leaf lettuce. HortScience 45(12): 1809-1814. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.45.12.1809
Kang J.H., KrishnaKumar S., Atulba S.L., Jeong B.R., Hwang S.J. 2013. Light intensity and photoperiod influence the growth and development of hydroponically grown leaf lettuce in a closed-type plant factory system. Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology 54(6): 501-509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-013-0109-8
Kim E.A., Lee J.H., Nam S.Y. 2024. Differences in growth characteristics and photochemical responses of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge under different LED light qualities in a closed plant factory system. Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science 32(4): 189-201. https://doi.org/10.7783/KJMCS.2024.32.4.189
Kozai T. 2016. Why LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture?. In: Kozai T., Fujiwara K., Runkle E. (eds) LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1848-0_1
Li Q., Kubota C. 2009. Effects of supplemental light quality on growth and phytochemicals of baby leaf lettuce. Environmental and Experimental Botany 67(1): 59-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.06.011
Liang Y., Kang C., Kaiser E., Kuang Y., Yang Q., Li T. 2021. Red/blue light ratios induce morphology and physiology alterations differently in cucumber and tomato. Scientia Horticulturae 281: 109995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2021.109995
Liu B., Yang Z., Gomez A., Liu B., Lin C., Oka Y. 2016. Signaling mechanisms of plant cryptochromes in Arabidopsis thaliana. Journal of Plant Research 129(2): 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10265-015-0782-z
Luo S., Zou J., Shi M., Lin S., Wang D., Liu W., Shen Y., Ding X., Jiang Y. 2024. Effects of red-blue light spectrum on growth, yield, and photosynthetic efficiency of lettuce in a uniformly illumination environment. Plant, Soil & Environment 70(5): 305-316. https://doi.org/10.17221/480/2023-PSE
Massa G.D., Kim H.H., Wheeler R.M., Mitchell C.A. 2008. Plant productivity in response to LED lighting. HortScience 43(7): 1951-1956. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.43.7.1951
Mathur S., Seo B., Jajoo A., Reddy K.R., Reddy V.R. 2023. Chlorophyll fluorescence is a potential indicator to measure photochemical efficiency in early to late soybean maturity groups under changing day lengths and temperatures. Frontiers in Plant Science 14: 1228464. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1228464
Mitchell C.A., Dzakovich M.P., Gomez C., Lopez R., Burr J.F., Hernández R., Kubota C., Currey C.J., Meng Q., Runkle E.S., Bourget C.M., Morrow R.C., Both A.J. 2015. Light-emitting diodes in horticulture. In Horticultural Reviews: Volume 43, Janick J. (Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119107781.ch01
Nissim-Levi A., Kitron M., Nishri Y., Ovadia R., Forer I., Oren-Shamir M. 2019. Effects of blue and red LED lights on growth and flowering of Chrysanthemum morifolium. Scientia Horticulturae 254: 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.04.080
Ohashi-Kaneko K., Takase M., Kon N., Fujiwara K., Kurata K. 2007. Effect of light quality on growth and vegetable quality in leaf lettuce, spinach and komatsuna. Environmental Control in Biology 45(3): 189-198. https://doi.org/10.2525/ecb.45.189
Ouzounis T., Fretté X., Rosenqvist E., Ottosen C.O. 2014. Spectral effects of supplementary lighting on the secondary metabolites in roses, chrysanthemums, and campanulas. Journal of Plant Physiology 171(16): 1491-1499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2014.06.012
Ouzounis T., Rosenqvist E., Ottosen C.O. 2015. Spectral effects of artificial light on plant physiology and secondary metabolism: A review. HortScience 50(8): 1128-1135. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.50.8.1128
Park B.G., Lee J.H., Shin E.J., Kim E.A., Nam S.Y. 2024. Light quality influence on growth performance and physiological activity of Coleus cultivars. International Journal of Plant Biology 15(3): 807-826. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb15030058
Pennisi G., Orsini F., Landolfo M., Pistillo A., Crepaldi A., Nicola S., Fernández J.A., Marcelis L.F., Gianquinto G. 2020. Optimal photoperiod for indoor cultivation of leafy vegetables and herbs. European Journal of Horticultural Science 85(5): 329-338. https://doi.org/10.17660/eJHS.2020/85.5.4
Pennisi G., Sanyé-Mengual E., Orsini F., Crepaldi A., Nicola S., Ochoa J., Fernandez J.A., Gianquinto G. 2019. Modelling environmental burdens of indoor-grown vegetables and herbs as affected by red and blue LED lighting. Sustainability 11(15): 4063. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154063
Petrovics D., Giezen M. 2022. Planning for sustainable urban food systems: an analysis of the up-scaling potential of vertical farming. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 65(5): 785-808. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2021.1903404
Radford P.J. 1967. Growth analysis formulae-their use and abuse. Crop Science 7(3): 171-175. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1967.0011183X000700030001x
Ramalho J.C., Marques N.C., Semedo J.N., Matos M.C., Quartin V.L. 2002. Photosynthetic performance and pigment composition of leaves from two tropical species is determined by light quality. Plant Biology 4(1): 112-120. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-20443
Randall W.C., Lopez R.G. 2014. Comparison of supplemental lighting from high-pressure sodium lamps and light-emitting diodes during bedding plant seedling production. HortScience 49(5): 589-595. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.49.5.589
Rashidi A., Tehranifar A., Nemati H. 2018. Effect of light combination and timing of supplemental lighting on growth characteristics and flowering of pansy (Viola × Wittrockiana Rose). Journal of Ornamental Plants 8(4): 227-240. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/jornamental/Article/1032907
Saito Y., Shimizu H., Nakashima H., Miyasaka J., Ohdoi K. 2010. The effect of light quality on growth of lettuce. IFAC Proceedings Volumes 43(26): 294-298. https://doi.org/10.3182/20101206-3-JP-3009.00052
Schroeter-Zakrzewska A., Kleiber T. 2014. The effect of light colour and type of lamps on rooting and nutrient status in cuttings of michaelmas daisy. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science 20(6): 1426-1434. http://www.agrojournal.org/20/06-22.pdf
Senger H., Bauer B. 1987. The influence of light quality on adaptation and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. Photochemistry and Photobiology 45(6): 939-946. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1987.tb07905.x
Shin E.J., Lee J.H., Nam S.Y. 2024. Evaluation of growth, vegetation indices, and photosynthesis of Cichorium intybus L. seedlings as affected by LED light qualities in a closed nursery facility. Horticultural Science and Technology 42(3): 350-364. https://doi.org/10.7235/HORT.20240029
Song J., Cao K., Hao Y., Song S., Su W., Liu H. 2019. Hypocotyl elongation is regulated by supplemental blue and red light in cucumber seedling. Gene 707: 117-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2019.04.070
Song J.W., Bhandari S.R., Shin Y.K., Lee J.G. 2022. The influence of red and blue light ratios on growth performance, secondary metabolites, and antioxidant activities of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Horticulturae 8(7): 601. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8070601
Su L.J., Hyeon K.Y. 2014. Growth and anthocyanins of lettuce grown under red or blue light-emitting diodes with distinct peak wavelength. Horticultural Science and Technology 32(3): 330-339. https://doi.org/10.7235/hort.2014.13152
Tanaka M., Takamura T., Watanabe H., Endo M., Yanagi T., Okamoto K. 1998. In vitro growth of Cymbidium plantlets cultured under superbright red and blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology 73(1): 39-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.1998.11510941
Terfa M.T., Poudel M.S., Roro A.G., Gislerød H.R., Olsen J.E., Torre S. 2012. Light emitting diodes with a high proportion of blue light affects external and internal quality parameters of pot roses differently than the traditional high pressure sodium lamp. Acta Horticulturae 956: 635-642. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.956.76
Terfa M.T., Solhaug K.A., Gislerød H.R., Olsen J.E., Torre S. 2013. A high proportion of blue light increases the photosynthesis capacity and leaf formation rate of Rosa × hybrida but does not affect time to flower opening. Physiologia Plantarum 148(1): 146-159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2012.01698.x
Trivellini A., Toscano S., Romano D., Ferrante A. 2023. LED lighting to produce high-quality ornamental plants. Plants 12(8): 1667. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12081667
Viršilė A., Olle M., Duchovskis P. 2017. LED lighting in horticulture. In: Dutta Gupta S. (eds) Light Emitting Diodes for Agriculture. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5807-3_7 
Wang H., Gu M., Cui J., Shi K., Zhou Y., Yu J. 2009. Effects of light quality on CO2 assimilation, chlorophyll-fluorescence quenching, expression of Calvin cycle genes and carbohydrate accumulation in Cucumis sativus. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 96(1): 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2009.03.010
Wang J., Lu W., Tong Y., Yang Q. 2016. Leaf morphology, photosynthetic performance, chlorophyll fluorescence, stomatal development of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) exposed to different ratios of red light to blue light. Frontiers in Plant Science 7: 250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00250
Wang L., Han S., Wang S., Li W., Huang W. 2022a. Morphological, photosynthetic, and CAM physiological responses of the submerged macrophyte Ottelia alismoides to light quality. Environmental and Experimental Botany 202: 105002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2022.105002
Wang S., Liu X., Liu X., Xue J., Ren X., Zhai Y., Zhang X. 2022b. The red/blue light ratios from light-emitting diodes affect growth and flower quality of Hippeastrum hybridum ‘Red Lion’. Frontiers in Plant Science 13: 1048770. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1048770
Wollaeger H.M., Runkle E.S. 2014. Growth of impatiens, petunia, salvia, and tomato seedlings under blue, green, and red light-emitting diodes. HortScience 49(6): 734-740. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.49.6.734
Wollaeger H.M., Runkle E.S. 2015. Growth and acclimation of impatiens, salvia, petunia, and tomato seedlings to blue and red light. HortScience 50(4): 522-529. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.50.4.522
Xiaoying L., Shirong G., Taotao C., Zhigang X., Tezuka T. 2012. Regulation of the growth and photosynthesis of cherry tomato seedlings by different light irradiations of light emitting diodes (LED). African Journal of Biotechnology 11(22): 6169-6177. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB11.1191
Yu W., Liu Y., Song L., Jacobs D.F., Du X., Ying Y., Shao Q., Wu J. 2017. Effect of differential light quality on morphology, photosynthesis, and antioxidant enzyme activity in Camptotheca acuminata seedlings. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 36(1): 148-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-016-9625-y
Zheng L., Van Labeke M.C. 2017. Long-term effects of red-and blue-light emitting diodes on leaf anatomy and photosynthetic efficiency of three ornamental pot plants. Frontiers in Plant Science 8: 917. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00917 
Agrotechniques in Industrial Crops

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 30 July 2026

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics